Phase-space averaging for stellar convection II. Maximum-entropy closures for mixed radiative-convective envelopes

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Original abstract

Surface convection in cool stars sets the entropy jump between the atmosphere and the deep convective envelope, and therefore affects the radius and structure of one-dimensional stellar models. In standard local treatments, this entropy jump is controlled through an effective convective efficiency. We develop a phase-space closure that relates the mean stratification to the local distribution of entropy and velocity among convective elements. Our aim is to describe how the surface entropy transition emerges from the statistics of these elements, rather than prescribing it directly. We first construct a maximum-entropy model for the convective bulk, assuming that the realised states are bounded by a deep entropy level $S$. This maximum-entropy construction predicts a one-sided exponential entropy distribution, and its low-entropy tail is recovered in the deep convective part of the three-dimensional radiation-hydrodynamics simulations. Closer to the surface, the distribution is reorganised by radiative cooling and separates into two thermodynamic components. Using a radiative entropy branch, an adiabatically descending cooled branch, and a population fraction controlled by optical depth, the two-population closure reproduces the mean entropy stratification of the four reference simulations over most of the displayed range, without adjusting the entropy profile itself. The surface transition can therefore be interpreted as a continuous population decomposition, rather than as a sharp boundary between radiative and convective layers. This provides a natural route toward one-dimensional stellar models in which the surface entropy jump is determined from the statistical organisation of the flow instead of being set by a calibrated mixing-length efficiency.

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